Columns are the backbone of many structures. they support roofs, floors, and beams, keeping buildings and bridges standing strong. In construction, steel and concrete are two primary materials for columns. Each has its advantages: steel is extremely strong and ductile

The stress strain curve is a fundamental concept in engineering and material science that shows how a material deforms under load. It plots stress (internal force per unit area) against strain (relative deformation). By analyzing this curve, engineers can understand